Royal Ahold’s Case Write Up Essay Example

Regal Ahold’s Case Write Up Essay Official Summary The case talks about the Royal Ahold’s the significant occasions that prompted the death of an incredible European organization. The case presents a portion of the key issues in the regions of authority, methodology, review and bookkeeping misrepresentation that brought about their debacle. The case recognizes the issues made by the administration in choosing the ill-advised development technique and motivation plan that supported dishonest conduct from the senior administration. The occasions introduced contact and feature the board and administration issues, which are so significant in overseeing worldwide organizations. After investigation of the cases and fiscal reports, I have accompanied inquiries and worries on the administration and budget reports that could have gotten this before on. Inquiries to be posed and procedure of favoring spending plans, corporate methodology, chance controls would have raised worries on the administration style. A portion of the other suggested activities for board and its different advisory groups would have debilitated the ill-advised administration rehearses. A portion of these inquiries may have surfaced main problems and/or supported the correct practice. I discovered different bookkeeping guidelines, difficulties of worldwide review process; for this situation it was driven by Deliotte. The CEO’s and authority development technique was the prize and acknowledgment was ill-advised. The quantity of acquisitions made during the 90s and nonstop weight was put on all auxiliaries to develop the deals by 15% were awful choices. This by itself prompted numerous different issues inside the organization. The CEO’s development system and want to rapidly develop the organization put massive focus on every single other organization and senior administration to by one way or another meet the CEO’s desire. We will compose a custom exposition test on Royal Ahold’s Case Write Up explicitly for you for just $16.38 $13.9/page Request now We will compose a custom paper test on Royal Ahold’s Case Write Up explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer We will compose a custom paper test on Royal Ahold’s Case Write Up explicitly for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Recruit Writer Everything came about into deceitful exercises and at last debacle of incredible organization. I prescribe embracing changes to impetus plans, non-money related elements be a piece of accomplishment standards. In estimating budgetary achievement, working capital proportion, stock days, receivable and payable targets ought to be a piece of motivators. Most importantly, I prescribe changes to the board advisory groups and guaranteeing their work is free was likewise significant, I. e. review board of trustees, foundation of HR advisory group to raise issues and improve the general association culture. The case additionally features the issue of different bookkeeping gauges being rehearsed in very nation. A standard corporate wide bookkeeping standard in Royal Ahold more likely than not been utilized. Both outside and interior inspectors must have report ed numbers in a predictable methodology. I prescribe that inspectors had direct answering to board and ought to have engaged and prepared to search for documentation and the board structures in their review procedure. Had they burrow profound on all regions of worries of material criticalness they may have discovered side letters. I have likewise featured different proposals remembering the controls for the bookkeeping principles and in planning money related papers. Impetus plans and corporate technique be practical to keep away from undesirable practices. Tone of the top administration including the board’s, task of obligations be obviously expressed and occasionally estimated. Understudy id: 250712690 1 Management Accounting Exam Problem Identification: The case portrays another instance of fizzle of administration and business morals. This gives off an impression of being a fake and not simply bookkeeping botches. By 2003, the hour of the case, Enron, WorldCom and scarcely any others had just distinguished the need of business morals and corporate administration. Imperial Ahold arrangement of occasions happened mostly because of eagerness and exploitative conduct however what truly underlies is the goal setting, development technique and, prizes acknowledgment standards set by the board. The case additionally presents issues of cost bookkeeping, as far as, when to apply the assembling refunds. Union of auxiliaries and joint endeavors additionally assumed a job in this misrepresentation. It additionally shows terrible administration, blemishes in outer review, disappointment of inside review capacities and somewhat their competency. Initiative methodology: Royal Ahold’s CEO’s technique of 15% development year-over-year was forceful. The prize and acknowledgment structure around the business number was inappropriate as it drove the board everything being equal and different specialty units to expand the income and meet the objectives. Chief continued conveying to board and investors the desire around the business system and probability of meeting these objectives. Subsequently, it made a culture whereby senior administration were feeling the squeeze to meet the business objective. The senior administration and head of auxiliaries more likely than not felt that missing the business targets isn't so much as a choice. Bookkeeping Fraud: The case presents hardly any huge issues of bookkeeping. Right off the bat, the issue is of the off base bookkeeping treatment of assembling refunds and special recompenses. My assessment is that refunds can't diminish the expense of products except if there is a sureness of getting the discounts. In the event that the refunds are unsure they can't diminish the expense of products erroneously. From the case, apparently the board requested greater amount of products then they could have sold. They booked the discounts at time of products got and decline the expense of merchandise rashly. (Suspicion: It isn't extremely obvious from the case, if these discounts were reserved as salary or balanced against the expense of merchandise I. . decline in cost of thing. I have accepted that Royal Ahold bookkeepers diminished the expenses (rashly according to above passage). On the off chance that these were reserved as pay, at that point it is even a greater misrepresentation and not a bookkeeping mistake) Second bookkeeping extortion issue is the boo kkeepers arrangement of Royal Ahold’s parent organization fiscal summaries. They combined the budget summaries including a portion of the joint endeavors when Royal didn’t even had authority over them. Imperial Ahold didn't possess over half of these Joint Ventures and didn't have the control of the dynamic. They made false administrative work to show they had control on these join adventure organizations. This is an unadulterated misrepresentation as they made understandings to fulfill inspectors and attempt to conceal the genuine realities. Review: Both outer inspectors and inside evaluators (and review board of trustees) neglected to distinguish any of the bookkeeping issues. It could have been missed as bookkeeping principles in numerous nations is extraordinary. Outer inspectors, despite the fact that they may all be of Deloite, of one nation just reviews that nation explanations, so they may not be natural what may be occurring in different pieces of the organization. Be that as it may, the Royal Ahold parent organization inspectors are dependable to have an oversight of companywide review and ought to be considered answerable for over - looking these fake exchanges. Interior review and board’s review council neglected to distinguish any of the deception either. On that in Netherlands there were two sheets (Governing Board and Supervisory Board) and the two sheets weren’t ready to distinguish or raise warning on any of these issues and deceptions. The executives having two arrangements of desk work with JV (Joint Ventures) without going under the examination shows ineptitude of review capacities. Administration/Audit Structure The manner in which the administration and review structure was spread out at Royal Ahold, there were five distinct boards of trustees and elements were mindful to survey bookkeeping and budgetary controls and practices that could have posed inquiries and raise concerns (warnings). They were: The administration board, administrative board, the review advisory group, interior review office and the outside evaluators. Each ought to have autonomously surveyed administration controls and budget reports and raise concerns and issues. Raising Red Flags As I would like to think, the administration structure and review boards of trustees and outer evaluators were sufficiently adequate to deal with or reveal such fake exercises had they been basic, made the correct controls, engaged the interior examiners and clearly posed the correct inquiries while looking into the budget summaries and other administration documentation. As a major aspect of board, I would have posed inquiries following inquiries, or have acted when seen variations from the norm. This would have helped me in recognizing issues, concerns and in raising warnings on the Royal Ahold 1999-2001 budget summaries. Likewise some of them are identified with mid 90’s administration mentality and procedure. Procedure and Growth Approach: The objective of meeting 15% year-over-year in deals, particularly in US in 2000-01 when economy was in downturn ought to have frightened the board and inward reviewers. They ought to have researched how the business targets are being accomplished. It is difficult to meet 15% deals in US food enterprises under this financial atmosphere. This may have driven the administration conduct in meeting the objectives. As board part, I would have solicited CEO to clarify the system from remunerations and acknowledgment, mostly on top line reward as it is an off-base decision. (I have by and by worked at Compaq during 1999-2000 and have seen the issue of top line reward and commission on deals. This prompted Compaq’s proceeded with emergencies and in the end it was purchased by HP in 2003). I would attempted to impact the board and subsequently the CEO to think about an increasingly thorough prizes system. From my experience reward methodology assumes a major job in organization culture. The other significant factor that builds up the administration mentality is the thing that CEO likes to hear. It appears to be Royal Ahold’s CEO, Cees van der Hooven

Benefits of a C Corporation Essay

Right off the bat, a C Corporation can be characterized as a lawful unit of business that has its own different personality from its proprietors or the people that structure it. To utilize the general legitimate term, it is a â€Å"body corporate†, a â€Å"legal entity†, which essentially implies a partnership can be dealt with simply like a person in law, it can sue and can be sued. This solitary trademark doesn't just make it very special yet in addition gives it an edge over different business elements, for example, sole owner, association, restricted obligation Company to make reference to yet not many. Notwithstanding, the two significant sorts of enterprise, which are the C Corporation and S Corporation. The C Corporation has very various advantages; the most specialized of these is its capacity to watch its owners’ individual resources from judgment against the business. Proprietors can likewise part benefit and misfortune with the business for a lower generally speaking assessment rate. One more advantage is that it has no restrictions in number of investors and proprietor. Once more, Owners don't should be U. S. residents or occupants; both outside and nearby are similarly permitted to partake in its possession. A C company additionally has the adaptability of being possessed by one more business substance, as opposed to an individual or a few people. At last, the C Corporation has a bundle of a lot more noteworthy duty points of interest over some other business substance, for it was principally assigned for charge purposes, while the â€Å"S† company passes it assessment to the investors, the C Corporation then again goes about as it own expense element. Reference Bakan J. , 2004, The Corporation: The Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power. USA

Photographic evidence

Photographic evidence So I thought I’d show you just what I was talking about in my last entry where I talk about the horrible trigonometric torture I endured in my 2.001 lecture. You see the double-angle formulas, don’t you? Yuck. After that, I was working on my 2.001 pset, which thankfully didn’t cover all that much trig just yet, but was still firmly entrenched in algebra. I did the following two pages of it: …before finding out that my method was completely wrong. Don’t you hate those moments? In other news, I have a confession to make to my fellow VMars fans Ready? I think I have a fictional character crush on Piz. I can’t help it, he’s just so freaking cute! Of course, he’s totally in love with Veronica and while part of me desperately wants him to get the girl, he’s way too good for her. I mean, don’t get me wrong, I basically aspire to be Veronica in all of her snarky goodness, but sometimes these pesky things like her sheer stupidity (um, helping Donut kidnap his own freaking kid, worst plot EVER), completely biatchy nature, and dating habits are less than stellar. Also, this curly hair thing? So not working for me. Anyway. 3 Piz. That’s all. Responses to questions: Thuita Maina said: Am just concerned about admission chief, Marilee Jones, blogs. I havent seen her blog since I got hooked to the MIT site four months ago. Is she very very busy? I would love to hear from her, and I guess so would many applicants. Well, I’ve never been the Dean of Admissions of anywhere, but I imagine she is pretty busy, especially now that reading season is starting! I don’t know for sure, but I’d say you can expect to hear from Marilee only a few times a year, usually around crucial dates in the admissions cycle, so stay tuned. Mona said: Hi. Thi[s] i[s] not a re[s]pon[s]e to thi[s] pot, but rather a concern regarding the application proce[ss]. I hope you can help me. What do I do with the teacher recommendation[s]? [s]hould I [s]end it my[s]elf or [s]hould they [s]end it? And [s]hould I [s]ign the part on top where it [s]ay[s] I waive the right to review thi[s]? I know it'[s] better if I dont [s]ee the paper my[s]elf, [s]o I ju[s]t need to know what'[s] the right way to do it, and [s]hould I [s]end all the [s]tuff together in one big envelope? Thank[s] ([s]orry my keyboard i[s] broken! :( ) Man. I feel your pain. I didn’t have an “i” key for the longest time last year. So. Annoying. As for the recommendation letters, my guidance counselors made me sign the waiver part, but I’m honestly not sure how much it matters. I guess your teachers might be more honest if they know you won’t be reading it, but one of my teachers actually gave me my own copy of his letter, just because, I guess. So I can’t really help there. As for who should send it in, my guidance counselors took care of that. They actually did tons of work for us- we submitted all of our completed applications to them and they shipped the whole thing off at once. Even if your guidance counselors aren’t that helpful, they still need to fill out some forms for your app (school profiles and counselor recommendations), so you could ask your teachers to give their letters to the guidance office and have it packaged that way. If that’s not possible (or you don’t trust your guidance officewho’s seen Orange County? Awesome movie), you can certainly ask the teachers to send the letters separately (just make sure they have the appropriate address and they label the pages with the appropriate identifying information the college wants- usually name and birthdate or social security number or something like that). You can also send the letters yourself. Just have your teachers seal the letters themselves, then toss the sealed envelopes into a big folder to be mailed. The more pages you can package together, the better, as it obviously reduces the risk of things getting lost. But it really doesn’t matter how you do it- as long as all the pages have your identifying information, just pick the system that works out the best for you (and your teachers and guidance counselor). Jacqueline said: Definitely understand what you mean about the angles. The last problem on my physics final last year was of those hypothetical situations where a boat is crossing a river leaving from the south shore and the wind is pushing it northeast and the current is flowing west and a school of goldfish is exerting a southwest force on the stern, and the coefficient of friction of the seaweed scraping the bottom is 4.2 x 10 ^ -4242. That is truly, truly horrendous. I’m so sorry for you.

Radha, as the only one of all the characters in the novels...

Radha, as the only one of all the characters in the novels is a true representing of the modern Indian woman. In her study of the imaginary of Indian women in literature, Rajan states that The image of the new Indian woman is of course derived primarily from the urban educated middle-class woman (Rajan 130) and describes her as attractive, educated, hardworking, and socially aware (Rajan 131). In spite of her origin as a daughter of a middle class traditional family, while studying and in the years following her education, Radha became well aware of her possibilities. Living in a large city away from home, having a job and later even a lover, she likes to think of herself as of an independent young woman who can freely decide about†¦show more content†¦This dilemma is inevitably the theme of the novel—and Saadiyas pursuit of freedom can be seen as a variation on the theme. The closer to the ideal of a housewife Radha gets, the more she feels the need to escape. The more boundaries she crosses, however, the more she tends to get back to her role of a wife. The longing for adventure as well as the guilt she feels while pursuing it is the main driving power that makes her sway between her duty to Shyam and her attraction to Chris. The two men stand for a safe yet dull and tiring life full of stereotypes in which she is unable to realise herself fully on one hand and an exciting yet strange life full of the unexpected that makes her feel alive again. She feels trapped by the expectation that are applied to her, such as having a baby or being a glossy, silly wife (Nair 61) and struggles to find a way out so that she could breath freely. While Chris gives her, at least in her eyes, the space she needs in able to breathe freely, Shyam expects her to behave in the way his situation requires, denying her own individual choices. His expectations (Does she ever consider that such silly acts have repercussions? Besides, what will my friends and their wives say if they find out? We have a place in society. A standing that Radha has always treated rather carelessly) stand in a contrast to Radhas feelings. (nair 70)12 This makes her decide to break the conventions once

My Internship Interview, And My Exercise Adherence Project

This week was not so bad. A few things that happen was my research, my internship interview, and my exercise adherence project. The best thing about this week is that it was pay day and it is getting closer to fall break. In my research, I’m still confused about what or how I’m supposed to go about doing my duty. My duty is to make the 36-week fetal EKG/ultrasound appointments, but where do I start. When I saw Jaclyn I asked her for some advice. Unusually Kendal is working with me as well with the study so we both kind of talked to Jaclyn about our concern. Basically, what Jaclyn told me to do is to go through the emails to see what the previous research student did and then go through the calendar to see with mom was due for a 36-week fetal EKG/ultrasound. For the free time she told us to make sure we have done all our duty work and make sure all the data is entered in. After, Kendal and I talked to Jaclyn about what we should do when we have free time or we do not have a mom to come in, I started to feel better. I started to go through the emails and find the last mom that was contacted and find the email for the ECU Heart Institute. I copied and paste the emails to the moms and then sent them an email to get their appointment set up. Well I was finishing that up I did a whole session with a mom by myself. I did the pre and post blood pressure, the warm up and the yoga. I felt like being to handle a mom by myself is impressive in my eyes. I was starting to move on up inShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Supervision And The Manufacturing Industry For Five Years2749 Words   |  11 PagesSupervision (DRAFT – TO BE HEAVILY EDITED FOR ERRORS) Elizabeth Griffin Saint Mary’s College of California LDSH 100 October 22, 2014 Supervision The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate my knowledge of supervision. 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Globalization and Perception on War Free Essays

string(36) " different uses of ICTs in warfare\." Globalization and International Organizations Assignment Submitted By A. S. M. We will write a custom essay sample on Globalization and Perception on War or any similar topic only for you Order Now Iqbal Bahar Rana. ID # 103-0007-085 MPPG Programme, North South University Date: 14. 11. 2011 Do you think the advent of information revolution has changed the way war is perceived by the West? If so, what are the implications of such changes for poorly-governed countries of the world? Introduction: The German philosopher Hegel held that revolutions are the locomotive of history. According to his theory, every social, political, and economic system builds up tensions and contradictions over time. Eventually these explode in revolution. One cannot create a revolution in the way that an architect designs a building. Nor is it possible to control revolutions like a conductor leads an orchestra. Revolutions are much too big and complex for that. Those who live in revolutionary times can only make a thousand small decisions and hope that they move history forward in the desired direction. Around the world today we see the growing sophistication and rapid international diffusion of powerful new information technologies, the mergers of huge communication empires, strategic alliances across borders, and the doubling of power and the halving of the price of computing every 18 months (Moore’s Law). The Information Revolution, ethno-political conflicts, globalization — each of these three mega-trends is individually important for all nations’ future; together, they are redefining the global context within which governments and citizens must make daily decisions in the years to come. Thus, their intersection should constitute a central concern of scholars, policy makers, and citizens. In an era of globalization, national security has a different meaning. Nation-states no longer have a monopoly on the means of coercion. Even if nuclear weapons had a deterrent value during the Cold War, today they have none as the causes of insecurity, more often than not, are economic collapse and internecine conflict, and not external aggression. The information age has revolutionized the instrument of soft power and the opportunities to apply them. The ability of a nation to project the appeal of its ideas, ideology, culture, economic model, and social and political institutions and to take advantage of its international business and telecommunications networks will leverage soft power. In simple terms, the information revolution is increasing inter-connectedness and escalating the pace of change in nearly every dimension of life. This, in turn, shapes the evolution of armed conflict. Whether in economics, politics, or war-fighting, those who are able to grasp the magnitude of this will be the best prepared to deal with it. The use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in warfare scenarios has been of central interest to governments, intelligence agencies, computer scientists and security experts for the past two decades (Arquilla and Ronfeldt 1997; Campen and Dearth 1998; Singer 2009). . ICTs gave rise to the latest revolution in military affairs (RMA) by providing new tools and processes of waging war – like network-centric warfare (NCW), and integrated command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR). This RMA concerns in the premise of military forces, as they have to deal with â€Å"the 5th dimension of warfare, information, in addition to land, sea, air and space†. Classical Perception of War: Clausewitz is under significant challenge. It is clearly alive and well in the military colleges of Western states but outside these corridors other philosophies are in the ascendancy. A debate continues to rage over the extent to which Clausewitzean thinking is still relevant to today’s wars. From today’s vantage point, several developments have eroded the appeal and power of the political philosophy of war. First, the concept of the battlefield, so central to the way in which Clausewitz understood warfare, has dissolved. The 9/11 attacks, for instance, demonstrated that today’s battlegrounds might be Western (or other) cities while the US-led ‘War on Terror’ – now rebranded as the ‘long war’ – conceives of the battlefield as literally spanning the entire globe. In the future, however, battles are unlikely to be confined to planet Earth as the US in particular will be forced to militarize space in an effort to protect the satellites upon which its communication and information systems depend (Hirst 2002). Second, as the speeches of both Osama bin Laden and US President George W. Bush make clear, the leadership cadres on both sides of the ‘War on Terror’ have often rejected political narratives of warfare. Instead, they have adopted eschatological philosophies in their respective rallying cries for a global jihad and a just war against evildoers where ideology played a significant role in waging war. A third problem for advocates of the political philosophy and one which Clausewitz obviously never encountered is war involving information technology. Information technology brings the Finally, when confronted by ‘revolutionary’ wars which cry out for counterrevolutionary responses, Clausewitz’s injunction to destroy the military forces of the adversary is problematic not just because such ‘military forces’ are often indistinguishable from the local populace but also because one can never be sure they have been eliminated ‘unless one is ready to destroy a large portion of the population’ (Rapoport 1968: 53; see also Chapter 26, this volume). As we have seen, it is fair to say, however, that the political philosophy has been the most prominent in the traditionally Anglo-American-dominated field of security studies (on the ethnocentric tendencies of security studies see Booth 1979, Barkawi and Laffey 2006). All that can be said in general terms is that whatever approach to understanding warfare one chooses to adopt will have consequences, leading the analysis in certain directions and forsaking others. Within International Relations and security studies warfare has commonly been defined in ways that highlight its cultural, legal and political dimensions. Information Revolution and information Warfare: ICTs are used in several combat activities, from cyber attacks to the deployment of robotic weapons and the management of communications among the fighting units. Such a wide spectrum of uses makes it difficult to identify the peculiarities of this phenomenon. Help in respect to this will come from considering in more detail the different uses of ICTs in warfare. You read "Globalization and Perception on War" in category "Papers" An attack on the information system called smurf attack is an implementation of distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks. A DDoS is a cyber attack whose aim is to disrupt the functionality of a computer, a network or a website. This form of attack was deployed in 2007 against institutional Estonian websites, and more recently similar attacks have been launched to block the Internet communication in Burma during the 2010 elections. The use of robotic weapons in the battlefield is another way to use ICTs in warfare. It is a growing phenomenon, coming to widespread public notice with US army, which deployed 150 robotic weapons in Iraq’s war in 2004, culminating in 12,000 robots by 2008. Nowadays, several armies around the world are developing and using tele-operated robotic weapons, they have been deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan, and more sophisticated machines are being used at the borders between Israel and Palestine in the so-called ‘automatic kill zone’. These robots are trusted to detect the presence of potential enemies and to mediate the action of the human soldiers and hence to fire on potential enemy’s targets when these are within the range patrolled by the robots. Several armies also invested their resources to deploy unmanned vehicles, like the MQ-1 predators, which have then been used to hit ground targets, and to develop unmanned combat air vehicles, which are designed to deliver weapons and can potentially act autonomously, like the EADS Barracuda, and the Northrop Grumman X-47B. One of the latest kinds of robotic weapon – SGR-A1 – has been deployed by South Korea to patrol the border with North Korea. This robot has low-light camera and pattern recognition software to distinguish humans from animals or other objects. It also has a color camera, which can locate a target up to 500 meters, and if necessary, can fire its built-in machine gun. Up until now, robotic weapons were tele-operated by militaries sitting miles away from the combat zone. Human were kept in the loop and were the ones who decided whether to shoot the target and to maneuver the robot on the battlefield. The case of SGR-A1 constitutes quite a novelty, as it has an automatic mode, in which it can open fire on the given target without waiting for the human soldier to validate the operation. Finally, the management of communication among the units of an army has been revolutionized radically by the use of ICTs. Communication is a very important aspect of warfare. It concerns the analysis of the enemy’s resources and strategy and the definition of an army’s own tactics on the battlefield. NCW and C4ISR represent a major revolution in this respect. An example of such revolution is the use of iPhone and Android devices. Today, the US army is testing the use of these devices to access intelligence data, display videos made by drones flying over the battlefields, constantly update maps and information on tactics and strategy, and, generally speaking, gather all the necessary information to overwhelm the enemy. Changing Nature of Conflict: States have been resilient in the face of technological change, and despite the increasingly rapid diffusion of information, states still shape the political space within which information flows (Keohane and Nye 1998; Herrera 2004). Yet state power has been diminished too. States have lost much of their control over monetary and fiscal policies, which are often dictated by global markets (Castells 1996, pp. 245, 254). The rapid movement of currency in and out of countries by currency speculators can extract a devastating cost on countries that do not have large currency reserves. States no longer monopolize scientific research. The Internet allows a global scientific community to exchange information on topics that can be easily exploited by terrorist organizations (Castells 1996, p. 125). The Internet has made it impossible for states, dictatorships as well as democracies, to monopolize the truth (Castells 1996, pp. 384, 486-487). Nor can they monopolize strategic information (Keohane and Nye 1998) – the information that confers great advantage only if competitors do not possess it – because states no longer control encryption technologies. Most critically, IT has made the most technologically advanced and powerful societies by traditional indices the most vulnerable to attack. A distinguishing hallmark of the information age is the â€Å"network,† which exploits the accessibility and availability of information, and computational and communicative speed, to organize and disseminate knowledge cheaply and efficiently (Harknett 2003). The strength of the network lies in its degree of connectivity. Connectivity can increase prosperity and military effectiveness, but it also creates vulnerabilities. Information-intensive military organizations are more vulnerable to information warfare because they are more information-dependent, while an adversary need not be information-dependent to disrupt the information lifeline of high-tech forces. Information-dependent societies are also more vulnerable to the infiltration of computer networks, databases, and the media, and to physical as well as cyber attacks on the very linkages upon which modern societies rely to function: communication, financial transaction, transportation, and energy resource networks. The same forces that have weakened states have empowered non-states. The information revolution has diffused and redistributed power to traditionally weaker actors. Terrorists have access to encryption technologies which increase their anonymity and make it difficult for states to disrupt and dismantle their operations. (Zanini and Edwards 2001, pp. 37-8) Global markets and the Internet make it possible to hire criminals, read about the design and dissemination of weapons of mass destruction, and coordinate international money laundering to finance nefarious activities (Kugler and Frost, eds. 001; Castells 2000, pp. 172, 180-182). Terrorists can now communicate with wider audiences and with each other over greater distances, recruit new members, and diffuse and control their operations more widely and from afar. Non-state actors also have increasing access to offensive information warfare capabilities because of their relative cheapness, accessibility and commercial origins (US GAO 1 996; Office of the Under Secretary for Defense for Acquisition and Technology 1996). Globalization, and the information technologies that undergird it, suggest that a small, well-organized group may be able to create the same havoc that was once the purview of states and large organizations with substantial amounts of resources. The availability off-the-shelf commercial technologies benefits smaller states and non-state actors, to be sure, but only the wealthiest and most powerful states will be able to leverage information technology to launch a â€Å"revolution in military affairs. The ability to gather, sort, process, transfer, and disseminate information over a wide geographic area to produce dominant battle space awareness will be a capability reserved for the most powerful (Keohane and Nye 1998). In this respect, information technology continues trends already underway in the evolution of combat that have enhanced the military effectiveness of states. IT makes conventional combat more accurate, thereby improving the efficiency of high explosive attacks. On the other hand, IT also continues trends in warfare that circumvent traditional military forces and which work in favor of weaker states and non-states. Like strategic bombing and counter-value nuclear targeting, efforts to destroy or punish an adversary by bypassing destruction of his armed forces and directly attacking his society, predate the information technology age. Techniques of information warfare provide attackers with a broader array of tools and an ability to target more precisely and by non-lethal means the lifelines upon which advanced societies rely: power grids, phone systems, transportation networks, and airplane guidance systems. Information is not only a means to boost the effectiveness of lethal technologies, but opens up the possibility of non-lethal attacks that can incapacitate, defeat, deter or coerce an adversary, attacks that can be launched by individuals and private groups in addition to professional militaries. Warfare is no longer an activity exclusively the province of the state. Information is something that states, organized for success in the industrial age, do not have a comparative advantage in exploiting. John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt argue that the information revolution is strengthening the network form of organization over hierarchical forms, that non-state actors can organize into networks more easily than traditional hierarchical state actors, and that the master of the network will gain major advantages over hierarchies because hierarchies have a difficult time fighting networks. (Arquilla and Ronfeldt 2001, pp. 1, 15. ) States are run by large hierarchical organizations with clearly delineated structures and functions. By contrast, a more efficient organizational structure for the knowledge economy is the network of operatives, or â€Å"knowledge workers† not bound by geographic location. This is precisely the type of organizational structure being adopted by terrorist groups as they adapt to the information age. There is evidence that adaptation is quicker in flat hierarchies or matrix organizations than it is in the steep pyramidal hierarchies that run the modern nation-state; that flatter networks have a much shorter learning curve than do hierarchically networked organizations (Areieli 2003). The higher the hierarchy, the faster it operates if it is doing something it has already foreseen and thus for which it is prepared. If, on the other hand, a scenario requires the development of new processes that were not foreseen, the flatter organization is better at learning. Matrix organizations are more creative and innovative. According to Castells, the performance of a network depends on two fundamental attributes: â€Å"its connectedness that is its structural ability to facilitate noise-free communication between its components; its onsistency, that is the extent to which there is sharing of interests between the network’s goals and the goals of its components† (Castells 1996, p. 171). On both criteria, large state bureaucracies suffer serious disadvantages. Informal war: Informal war is armed conflict where at least one of the antagonists is a non-state entity such as an insurgent army or ethnic militia. It is the descendent of what became known as low intens ity conflict in the 1980s. Like today, future informal war will be based on some combination of ethnicity, race, regionalism, economics, personality, and ideology. Often ambitious and unscrupulous leaders will use ethnicity, race, and religion to mobilize support for what is essentially a quest for personal power. The objectives in informal war may be autonomy, separation, outright control of the state, a change of policy, control of resources, or, â€Å"justice† as defined by those who use force. Informal war will grow from the culture of violence which has spread around the world in past decades, flowing from endemic conflict, crime, the drug trade, the proliferation of weapons, and the trivialization of violence through popular culture. In many parts of the world, violence has become routine. Whole generations now see it as normal. In this setting, informal war will remain common, in part because of the declining effectiveness of states. Traditionally, governments could preserve internal order by rewarding regions or groups of society which supported the government, punishing those which did not, and, with wise leadership, preempting conflict and violence through economic development. In a globalized economy, the ability of governments to control and manipulate the economy is diminished, thus taking away one of their prime tools for quelling dissent and rewarding support. In regions where the state was inherently weak, many nations have large areas of territory beyond the control of the government. And, as political, economic, and military factors constrain traditional cross border invasion, proxy aggression has become a more attractive strategic option. Regimes unwilling to suffer the sanctions and opprobrium that results from invading one’s neighbors find that supporting the enemies of one’s neighbors is often overlooked. This is not likely to change in coming decades. Finally, the combination of globalization and the Cold War have fueled the growth of an international arms market at the same time that the international drug traffic and the coalescence of international criminal networks have provided sources of income for insurgents, terrorists, and militias. With enough money, anyone can equip a powerful military force. With a willingness to use crime, nearly anyone can generate enough money. Informal war is not only more common than in the past, but also more strategically significant. This is true, in part, because of the rarity of formal war but also because of interconnectedness. What Martin Libicki calls â€Å"the globalization of perception†Ã¢â‚¬â€the ability of people to know what is happening everywhere—means that obscure conflicts can become headline news. There are no backwaters any more. As suffering is broadcast around the world, calls mount for intervention of one sort or the other. Groups engaged in informal war use personal and technological interconnectedness to publicize their cause, building bridges with a web of organizations and institutions. The Zapatista movement in southern Mexico is a model for this process. The Zapatistas, in conjunction with a plethora of left-leaning Latin Americanists and human rights organizations, used of the Internet to build international support with web pages housed on servers at places like the University of California, Swarthmore, and the University of Texas. This electronic coalition-building was so sophisticated that a group of researchers from the RAND Corporation labeled it â€Å"social netwar. Undoubtedly, more organizations will follow this path, blending the expertise of traditional political movements with the cutting-edge advertising and marketing techniques that the information revolution has spawned. A defining feature of the information revolution is that perception matters as much as tangible things. This will certainly hold for informal warfare. Future strategists will find that crafting an â€Å"image assessment† or â€Å"perception map† of a conflict will be a central part of their planning. In failed states, informal war may be symmetric as militias, brigand bands, and warlord armies fight each other. At other times, it may be asymmetric as state militaries, perhaps with outside assistance, fight against insurgents, militias, brigands, or warlord armies. Future insurgents would need to perform the same functions of defense, support, and the pursuit of victory, but will find new ways to do so. In terms of defense, dispersion is likely to be strategic as well as tactical. There will be few sanctuaries for insurgent headquarters in an era of global linkages, pervasive sensor webs, nd standoff weapons, so astute insurgents will spread their command and control apparatus around the world. Information technology will make this feasible. Right wing anti-government theorists in the United States have already developed a concept they call â€Å"leaderless resistance† in which disassociated terrorists work toward a common goal and become aware of each other’s action s through media publicity. The information revolution will provide the opportunity for â€Å"virtual leadership† of insurgencies which do not choose the anarchical path of â€Å"leaderless resistance. The top leadership might never be in the same physical location. The organization itself is likely to be highly decentralized with specialized nodes for key functions like combat operations, terrorism, fund raising, intelligence, and political warfare. In many cases, insurgent networks will themselves be part of a broader global network unified by opposition to the existing political and economic order. Informal war in the coming decades will not represent a total break with its current variants. It will still entail hands on combat, with noncombatants as pawns and victims. Insurgents, militias, and other organizations which use it will seek ways to raise the costs of conflict for state forces. Gray Area War: As the Cold War ended defense analysts like Max G. Manwaring noted the rising danger from â€Å"gray area phenomena† that combined elements of traditional war-fighting with those of organized crime. Gray area war is likely to increase in strategic significance in the early decades of the 21st century. To an extent, this is a return to historical normalcy after the abnormality of the Cold War. Today, gray area threats are increasing in strategic significance. Information technology, with its tendency to disperse information, shift advantages to flexible, networked organizations, and facilitate the creation of alliances or coalitions, has made gray area enemies more dangerous than in the past. For small or weak countries, the challenge is particularly dire. Not only are their security forces and intelligence communities less proficient, but the potential impact of gray area threats is amplified by the need to attract outside capital. In this era of globalization and interconnectedness, prosperity and stability within a state are contingent on capital inflows. Except in nations that possess one of the very rare high-payoff natural resources like petroleum, capital inflows require stability and security. In places like Colombia, South Africa, Central Asia, and the Caucuses, foreign investment is diminished by criminal activity and the insecurity it spawns. This makes gray area threats a serious security challenge. Gray area war involves an enemy or a network of enemies that seeks primarily profit, but which has political overtones and a substantially greater capability for strategic planning and the conduct of armed conflict than traditional criminal groups. Like future insurgents, future networked gray area enemies may have nodes that are purely political, some political elements that use informal war, and other components that are purely criminal. This greatly complicates the task of security forces that must deal with them. Because gray area enemies fall in between the realm of national security and law enforcement, the security forces that confront them must also be a â€Å"gray† blend of the military and the police. Like the military, security forces must have substantial fire power (both traditional and informational), and the ability to approach problems. But these security forces also must have characteristics of law enforcement, working within legal procedures and respecting legal rights. Even though the objective will be monetary rather than purely political, violence will be goal-oriented. Astrategic gray area war will consist primarily of turf battles between armed gangs or militias. It may be related to refugee movements, ethnic conflict, ecological degradation, or struggles for political power (as in Jamaica in the 1990s, where political parties used street gangs to augment their influence). When astrategic gray area war is linked to struggles for political power, the armed forces (such as they are) will be serving as mercenaries only partially controlled by their paymasters, rather than armed units under the actual command of political authorities. Strategic Information warfare: Formal, informal, and gray area war are all logical extensions of existing types. Technology, though, could force or allow more radical change in the conduct of armed conflict. For instance, information may become an actual weapon rather than simply a tool that supports traditional kinetic weapons. Future war may see attacks via computer viruses, worms, logic bombs, and trojan horses rather than bullets, bombs, and missiles. This is simply the latest version of an idea with recent antecedents in military history. Today strategic information warfare remains simply a concept or theory. The technology to wage it does not exist. Even if it did, strategists cannot be certain strategic information warfare would have the intended psychological effect. Would the destruction of a state’s infrastructure truly cause psychological collapse? Would the failure of banking, commercial, and transportation systems crush the will of a people or steel it? But until infrastructure warfare is proven ineffective, states and non-state actors which have the capacity to attempt it probably will, doing so because it appears potentially effective and less risky than other forms of armed conflict. Future infrastructure war could take two forms. In one version, strategic information attacks would be used to prepare for or support conventional military operations to weaken an enemy’s ability to mobilize or deploy force. The second possible form would be â€Å"stand alone† strategic information warfare. This might take the form of a sustained campaign designed for decisive victory or, more likely, as a series of raids designed to punish or coerce an enemy But should cyber-attacks, whether as part of strategic information warfare or as terrorism, become common, the traditional advantage large and rich states hold in armed conflict might erode. Cyber-attacks require much less expensive equipment than traditional ones. The necessary skills exist in the civilian information technology world. One of the things that made nation-states the most effective organizations for waging industrial age war was the expense of troops, equipment and supplies. Conventional industrial-age war was expensive and wasteful. Only organizations that could mobilize large amounts of money flesh, and material could succeed at it. But if it becomes possible to wage war using a handful of computers with internet connections, a vast array of organizations may choose to join the fray. Non-state organizations could be as effective as states. Private entities might be able to match state armed forces. While substantial movement is underway on the defense of national information infrastructure, offensive information warfare is more controversial. Following the 1999 air campaign against Serbia, there were reports that the United States had used offensive information warfare and thus â€Å"triggered a super-weapon that catapulted the country into a military era that could forever alter the ways of war and the march of history. According to this story, the U. S. military targeted Serbia’s command and control network and telephone system. The Future Battlefield: The information revolution is transforming warfare. No longer will massive dug-in Armies, armadas and Air Forces fight bloody attritional battles. Instead, small highly mobile forces, armed with real time information from satellites and terrestrially deployed battlefield sensors, will strike with lighteni ng speed at unexpected locations. On the battlefield of the future, enemy forces will be, located, tracked and targetted almost instantaneously through the use of: * Sensors and their fusion with a view to presenting an integrated highly reliable intelligence picture in real time. * Surveillance devices that unceasingly seek and shadow the enemy. * Data-links and computer-generated battle picture, task tables and â€Å"maps that change scale and overlay differing types of information in response to voice requests. † * Automated fire control, with first round kill probabilities approaching near certainty. Simulation, visualization and virtually in planning, and testing concepts and weapon effectiveness. This would balance out the need for large forces to overwhelm the opponent physically. Control function will be decentralized and shared at all levels of command. Combat will be in tandem to intelligence gathering. Non-lethal, soft-kill electronic weapons will assume as much importance as highly lethal, hard-kil l weapons. Intelligent command posts and paperless headquarters will be the form. A Commander will be of a different breed-priding more in his lap-top than his baton. He will be his own staff officer. Changing Perception of War and its implications on poorly governed country: The idea that weak states can compromise security — most obviously by providing havens for terrorists but also by incubating organized crime, spurring waves of migrants, and undermining global efforts to control environmental threats and disease — is no longer much contested. –Washington Post, June 9. 2004 A majority of states in the contemporary security environment can be classified as weak. These states exhibit a limited ability to control their own territories because, in part, they do not have a monopoly on the use of force within their borders. They also struggle to provide security or deliver major services to large segments of their populations. These vulnerabilities generate security predicaments that propel weak regimes—both democratic and authoritarian—to act in opportunistic ways. Because they lack conventional capabilities, out of necessity, weak states will have to be opportunistic in their use of the limited instruments they have available for security and survival. The threat of information warfare should be understood within a broad vision of global power that is based on an up-dated version of Mao Zedong’s theory of the ‘Three Worlds’. Just as Mao believed that the world was divided into three tiers of states, with the superpowers at the top, the developed states in the middle and the developing states at the bottom, in the information age is also supposed to be three types of state. At the top of the pile is the ‘information hegemony state’, asserting its control by dominating the telecommunications infrastructure, software development, and by reaping profits from the use of information and the Internet. After this comes the ‘information sovereign state’, exemplified by those European states that have accumulated sufficient know-how to exert independent control over their information resources and derive profits from them, and to protect themselves from information hegemony. At the bottom of the pile are the ‘information colonial and semi-colonial states’, which have no choice but to accept the information that is forced on them by other states. They are thus left vulnerable to exploitation because they lack the means to protect themselves from hegemonic power. In recent years, the nature of conflict has changed. Through asymmetric warfare radical groups and weak state actors are using unexpected means to deal stunning blows to more powerful opponents in the West. From terrorism to information warfare, the Wests air power, sea power and land power are open to attack from clever, but much weaker, enemies. The significance of asymmetric warfare, in both civilian and military realms become such an important subject for study to provide answers to key questions, such as how weaker opponents apply asymmetric techniques against the Western world, and shows how the West military superiority can be seriously undermined by asymmetric threats. Conclusion: It is said that nothing is permanent except change. This is particularly true in the information age. It is important to understand the nature of the new world information order in order to be effective in foreign policy initiatives and to conduct the international relations. The information revolution throws up various contradictory phenomena. It includes the strengthening of the forces of anarchy and control. The revolution empowers individuals and elites. It breaks down hierarchies and creates new power structures. It offers more choices and too many choices, greater insight and more fog. It reduces the risk to soldiers in warfare and vastly increases the cost of conflict. It can lead to supremacy of the possessors of information technologies while it leads to vulnerabilities to the same possessors from weaker nations. It cedes some state authority to markets, to transnational entities and to non-state actors and as a result produces political forces calling for the strengthening of the state. However, a mere look at some of the manifestations of the arrival of information technology in international relations, clearly brings out how the nature and exercise of power have been permanently altered. Benjamin Barber describes a world that is both coming together and falling apart in his book Jihad Against McWorld. He describes a world where the nation state is losing its influence and where the world is returning to tribalism, regionalism, and the ethnocentric warfare that characterized much of the earlier human history. This problem is most apparent in the developing world where we continue to see the spread of disease, continuing humanitarian crisis, political and economic instability, and ethnic, tribal, civil, and drug related war. There are several themes that are consistent across these global futures. The first is conflict. The negative effects of globalization will continue to promote regionalism, tribalism, and conflict in the developing world. Secondly, nations with uncontrollable population growth, a scarcity of natural resources, and poor government systems will fail to benefit from globalization regardless of its effects on the rest of the world. Thirdly, technology will continue to be exploited to benefit developed nations and illicit criminal/terrorist networks, and will have little affect on the developing world. In all scenarios the power of the state will weaken and the power of the non-state networked actor will continue to expand with the help of the tools of globalization. References: Paul D. Williams. (2008). War. In: Paul D. Williams Security Studies: An Introduction. New York: Routledge. p151-p171. Akshay Joshi. (2010). The Information Revolution and National Power:Political Aspects-II. Available: www. idsa. org. Last accessed 13rd November 2011. Alvin and Heidi Toffler, War and Anti-War: Survival at the Dawn of the 21st Century, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1993. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr. , â€Å"Power and Interdependence in the Information Age,† Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 5, September/October 1998. Steven Metz. (2010). ARMED CONFLICT IN THE 21st CENTURY:. Strategic Studies Institute. 01 (1), 65-119. Arquilla, J. (1998). Can information warfare ever be just? Ethics and Information Technology, 1(3), 203-212. Floridi, L. (2009). The information Society and Its Philosophy. The Information Society, 25(3), 153-158. Steven, Doglous, 2002. Information Warfare: a Philosophical Perspective. 1. London: University of Hertfordshire. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr.. (1998). Power and Interdependence in the Information Age. Foreign Affairs. v. 77 (5), 1-10 David J. Rothkopf, â€Å"Cyberpolitik: The Changing Nature of Power in the Information Age†, Journal of International Affairs, Spring 1998, p. 27. Akshay Joshi, â€Å"The Information Revolution and National Power: Political Aspects-I†, Strategic Analysis, August 1999. Jessica Mathews, â€Å"Powershift†, Foreign Affairs, January/February 1997, pp. 50-55. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976). The seminal discussion of the political philosophy of war. Emily O. Goldman and Leo J. Blanken, 2011, THE ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS OF MILITARY POWER, California, University of California-Davis How to cite Globalization and Perception on War, Papers

Mechanics of Material Lab Manual free essay sample

To investigate how shear strain varies with shear stress. c. To determine the Modulus of Rigidity of the rubber block. 4. Hooke’s Law for Wires a. To determine the Youngs Modulus of Elasticity of the specimen wire. b. To verify Hookes Law by experiment. 5. Strain in Compound Wires a. To determine the modulus of elasticity of two wires and hence evaluate the equivalent Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the combination b. To position the single applied load on the slotted link in order that both wires are subjected to common strain and hence to establish the load in each wire 6. Deflection of a simply supported beam To find the slope and deflection of a simply supported beam with point load at the center and to prove the results mathematically 7. Deflection of a cantilever beam To verify the slope and deflection of a cantilever beam experimentally and theoretically. 8. Deflection of a overhanging beam To find the central deflection of overhanging arm beam and confirm the results theoretically 9. We will write a custom essay sample on Mechanics of Material Lab Manual or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Shear center for a channel Find Shear center for a channel section cantilever. 10. Unsymmetrical Deflections To determine the deflections for symmetrical bending of an angle section beam 1. Shear Forces and Bending Moment in Beams To measure the bending moment at a normal section of a loaded beam and to check its agreement with theory 12. Study and Application of experimental photoelasticty techniques on linear crack propagation analysis 13. Direction and magnitude of principal stresses To use the Photo-elasticity as an experimental technique for stress analysis and to understand construction and operation of transmission polariscope. 14. Calculation of stress intensity factor Interpretation of Fringe Data and calculation of stress intensity factor (k) at different loading conditions 5. Micro Hardness Testing 16. Thin Cylinder Experiment No. 1Compression of a spring 1. OBJECTIVES a) To obtain the relation among the force applied to an extension spring and its change in length. b) To determine the stiffness of the test spring (s). 2. PROCEDURE a) Setup the apparatus vertically to the wall at a convenient height. b) Add increasing loads to the load hanger recording to the corresponding deflection for each load. c) Continue loading until at least 30 mm of extension has been achieved. 3. RESULTS Tabulate the results obtained and draw a graph of load (y-axis) against extension (x-axis). Note the following data for each spring used:- a. Outside diameter, b. Effective length, c. Wire diameter, d. Number of turns. The stiffness to the spring is the force required to produce a nominal extension of 1 mm. [pic] If Kg masses are used: The force applied to the spring in Newtons = Mass in Kg x 9. 81. 4. POINTS TO PONDER a. What relationship exists between the applied force and compression? b. Did the spring (s) behave according to Hooke’s Law? c. State the stiffness value (s) obtained. d. If the graph drawn does not pass through the origin state why. Experiment No. 2 Extension of a spring . OBJECTIVES a. To obtain the relation among the force applied to a compression sping and its change in length. b. To determine the stiffness of the test spring (s) 2. PROCEDURE a. Setup the apparatus vertically to the wall at a convenient height. b. Add increasing weight to the load hanger recording to c. the corresponding deflection for each load. d. Continue loading until at least 30 mm of compression has e. been achieved. 3. RESULTS Tabulate the results obtained and draw a graph of load (y-axis) against compression (x-axis). Note the following data for each spring used :- e. Outside diameter, f. Effective length, g. Wire diameter, h. Number of turns. The stiffness to the spring is the force required to produce a nominal extension of 1 mm. [pic] If Kg masses are used: The force applied to the spring in Newtons = Mass in Kg x 9. 81. 4. POINTS TO PONDER a. What relationship exists between the applied force and compression? b. Did the spring (s) behave according to Hooke’s Law? c. State the stiffness value (s) obtained. d. If the graph drawn does not pass through the origin state why. Experiment No. 3 Rubber in Shear 1. OBJECTIVES 1. To determine the variation of deflection with applied load. . To investigate how shear strain varies with shear stress. 3. To determine the Modulus of Rigidity of the rubber block. 2. PROCEDURE 1. Set-up the apparatus securely to the wall at the convenient height 2. Note the initian dial gauge reading. 3. Add increasing increments of load and recird the corresponding deflections registered on the dial gauge. 4. Tabulate the results and draw a graph of deflection (x-axis) against applied load (y-axis). Describe the relationship between the deflections and the applied load. State if this follows a linear law. 3. Observations and Calculations: Load (W) |Deflection |Shear Stress |Shear Strain | | |X |= W/A |=X/L | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Modulus of rigidity of the rubber block = shear stress/ shear strain = slope of graph |Data |Dimensions (Metric) | Dimension of block |150*75*25 mm | |Dial Gauge |12 mm travel * . 01 mm | |Load Hanger |250 mm * 2 N | |Max. Load |160 N (16 kg) | Experiment No. 4 Hooke’s Law for Wires Objectives: 1. To determine the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the specimen wire. 2. To verify Hooke’s Law by experiment. 3. To establish a value for the ultimate stress of the wire. [pic] Procedure: 1. Note the length (L), diameter (d) and the material of the wire under test. 2. Add sufficient initial load to the hanger to remove the flexure of the specimen. 3. Let the scale measurement now showing be the zero position. 4. Add equal increments of load to the hanger and note the corresponding total extension (x) for each case. 5. Care should be taken to ensure that the elastic limit of the material is not exceeded. 6. Tabulate the results and draw a graph of load (W) against extension (X). 7. Continue to load the specimen until fracture occurs. Note the breaking load. Observations and Calculations: |S/No. Load (N) |Stress (N/m2) |Extension(mm) |Strain |Young’s Modulus (Y) | |BRASS | |1 | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | |STEEL | |1 | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | Young’s Modulus of elasticity E/xA = WL Ultimate Stres s = Total Load at fracture / area of wire General Questions 1. State Hooke’s Law. Did the extension of the wire under test confirm to Hooke’s Law? 2. Quote the values obtained for E and the ultimate stress and compare these with the normally accepted values for the material. Experiment No. 5 Strain in Compound Wires Objectives: 1. To determine the Module of Elasticity of the two wires and hence evaluate the equivalent Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the combination. 2. To postion the single applied load on the slotted link in order that both wires are subjected to common strain and hence to :- 3. Establish the load in each wire. 4. To obtain an experimental value of the equivalent Young’s Modulus of elsticityof the combination. 5. To compare the experimental and theoretical results. Procedure: 1. Note the length and the diameter of each wire and the distance between their centers. 2. Remove the slotted link and suspend the hanger from the lower and of the slide attached to one of the wires. 3. Apply a range of increasing loads and note the corresponding extension of the wire. 4. Do not allow the wire to exceed its elastic limit. 5. Plot a graph of load against extension, and from the slope of the straight-line graph, determine the value of Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of the wire. a. Repeat this procedure for the other wire. b. Replace the slotted link and suspend the hanger from its edge placed at the center of the link. The length of one of the wires may require to be adjusted until the link is level. Small adjustment to the length of either one of the wires may be obtained by applying a supplementary load to its slide using another hanger. Place a load (W) on the central hanger and maintain a common extension in the wires (i. e. level condition) by adjusting the position of the knife-edge on the link. Note the new position of the load measured from the center of the left-hand wire. Note the magnitude of the applied load and the common extension of the wires. Repeat over a range of increasing loads. Tabulate the results and plot a graph of the load (W) against the extension (X) of the compound wire arrangement. Diagram and calculations: |S/No. Force (N) |fs (MPa) |fb (MPa) |fe (MPa) |ee * 10^-4 |Ee (Pa) * 10^10 | |1 | | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | | Experiment No. 6 Deflection of a simply supported beam OBJECTIVES To find the slope and deflection of a simply supported beam with point load at the centre and prove the results mathemati cally. APPARATUS 5. HST 6:1 with complete accessories 6. Vernier caliper, micrometer, meter rod, etc. [pic] PROCEDURE 1. Set up the two end supports at 1m span and insert the thick steel beam in the end and fixtures. 2. Place a load hanger and clamp at mid span and set up a dial gauge to measure the deflection at the load point. 3. Check that the end supports are free top rotate as the beam deflects. 4. Read the support rotation gauge and central deflection gauge. 5. Add load by increments of 1N up to 10 N recording the dial gauge reading and then move the load by the same decrements to obtain a duplicate set of readings. 6. Plot the end rotations and central deflection against the load. Observations and Calculations: |S/NO. |LOAD (N) |Slope |Deflection |Theoretical |Theoretical slope | | | | | |deflection | | | | |central |central |Y = |? | | | | | |WL3/48EI |WL2/16EI | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Experiment No. 7 Deflection of a cantilever beam OBJECTIVE To verify the slope and deflection of a cantilever beam experimentally and theoretically. APPARATUS 1. HST 6:1 with complete accessories 2. Vernier Caliper, micrometer, meter rod etc. [pic] PROCEDURE 1. Clamp the thicker steel strip (2. 64 mm) in the position shown in diagram so that it forms a cantileve r. 2. Fix the hanger clamp (0. 3m) from the fixed support and setup a dial guage over it. 3. Apply a load in increments of 1 /2 N up to about 5N reading the gauge at each load. 4. Plot a graph of deflection against load Observations and Calculations: |S/NO. LOAD (N) |Slope |Deflection |Theoretical |Theoretical slope | | | | | |deflection | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | RESULTS: 1. From the graph obtained, the best fit linear relationship between displacement and load the steel strip, compares the graidient with the theoretical value. 2. Comment on the accuracy of the theoretical results. Experiment No. Deflection of an overhang beam To find the deflection of overhanging arm beam and confirm the results theoretically OBJECTIVE To verify the slope and deflection of a overhang beam experimentally and theoretically. APPARATUS 3. HST 6:1 with complete accessories 4. Vernier Caliper, micrometer, meter rod etc. PROCEDURE 5. Clamp the thicker steel strip in the position shown in diagram so that it forms a overhang. 6. Fix the hanger clampahead from the roller support and setup a dial guage over it. 7. Apply a load in increments of 1 /2 N up to about 5N reading the gauge at each load. 8. Plot a graph of deflection against load Observations and Calculations: |S/NO. LOAD (N) |Slope |Deflection |Theoretical |Theoretical slope | | | | | |deflection | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | RESULTS: 3. From the graph obtained, the best fit linear relationship between displacement and load the steel strip, compares the graidient with the theoretical value. 4. Comment on the accuracy of the theoretical results. Experiment No. 9. Shear center for a channel OBJECTIVE To determine the share centre of a channel section cantilever and to draw the graph between notch distance and gauge readings. APPARATUS 7. Unsymmetrical cantilever 8. Rigid based plate, weights 9. String, pulley 10. Calibrated ring 11. Grid, two dial gauges PROCEDURE: 7. Turn the routable head, so that the cantilever section is positioned relative to the pulley. 8. Fit the share assessory to the top of the cantilever and turn the dial gauge so that they rest against the attachment. The grooves in the notched bar have the spacing of 5 mm. 9. Turn the scales of the dial gauges until they read zero. 10. Tie the string to the left hand notch. Move the pulley to the left and hang the weight hanger on the end of the string. Put a weight of 1 Kg on the hanger so that the total weight is 1,5Kg. 11. Adjust the pulley position until the string is parallel to the lines on the pulley bracket. Record the reading of the both dial gauges. 12. Move the string to the next notch. Readjust the pulley position, Record the dial gauges readings. 13. Repeat for each notch position. Results: Experimental position of Shear Center from the outside of the web. Theoretical position Channel Shear Center is h = B-2 A-2 t / IA Experiment No. 10 Unsymmetrical Bending of a Cantilever Beam |Direction of pull|Displacement |Applied load (Kg) | |(degrees) | | | | | |. 5 |1. 0 |1. 5 |2. 0 |2. 5 |3. | |0 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |22. 5 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |45 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |67. |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |90 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |112. 5 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |135 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |157. |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |180 |U | | | | | | | | |V | | | | | | | |Direction of pull|Displacement |Applied load (Kg) | |(degrees) | | | | | |. 5 |1. 0 |1. 5 |2. 0 |2. 5 |3. 0 | |0 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |22. |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |45 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |67. 5 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |90 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |112. |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |135 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |157. 5 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | |180 |L | | | | | | | | |R | | | | | | | Experiment No. 11 Bending Moment in Beams |S. No. Load (N) |Balance Reading (N)/ Net Force (N) | | | |W1 |W2 |W3 | |1 | | | | | |2 | | | | | |3 | | | | | |4 | | | | | |S. No. |Load (N) |Balnce Moment (N. mm)/ Theoretical Val. |1 | | | | | |2 | | | | | |3 | | | | | |4 | | | | | Experiment No. 13 Study and Application of experimental photoelasticty techniques on linear crack propagation analysis. OBJECTIVES To familiarize the students with the Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics in context with photoealsticity and orientation and understanding of operation off different types of polariscopes. THEORY The name photoelasticity reflects the nature of this experimental method: photo implies the use of light rays and optical techniques, while elasticity depicts the study of stresses and deformations in elastic bodies. Photoelastic analysis is widely used for problems in which stress or strain information is required for extended regions of the structure. Photo elastic stress analysis is a simple and powerful tool for design engineers that provide them with the experimental data required for validating analytical and computational designs. In using this method, a transparent plastic model of the structural part of the machine element under study is first made. Then the specimen was placed in the polariscope, and the simulating operating force was applied. When examined in the polarized light field provided by the instrument, colored fringe patterns are seen which reveal: †¢ A visible picture of the stress distribution over the whole area of the specimen. †¢ Stress distribution which is accurately readable at any point for both direction and magnitude. Two types of pattern can be obtained: isochromatics and isoclinics. These patterns are related to the principal-stress differences and to the principal-stress directions, respectively. Principles The method is based on the property of birefringence, which is exhibited by certain transparent materials. When polarized light passes through a stressed material, the light separates into two wave fronts travelling at different velocities, each oriented parallel to the direction of principal stresses(? 1,? 2) in the material but perpendicular to each other. Photoelastic materials exhibit the property of birefringence only on the application of stress and the magnitude of the refractive indices at each point in the material is directly related to the state of stress at that point. Thus, the first task is to develop a model made out of such materials. Isoclinics and isochromatics Isoclinics are the locus of the points in the specimen along which the principal stresses are in the same direction. Isochromatics are the locus of the points along which the difference in the first and second principal stress remains the same. Thus they are the lines which join the points with equal maximum shear stress magnitude. Interpretation of the Photoelastic Pattern: Once the fringes obtained by application of load on photoelasic specimen the most important step is interpretation of complete stress field. The photoelastic fringe pattern data offer suggestion to modify design to avoid from material failure. It is also helpful in reducing average stress on actual part. Complete stress field interpretation include principal stress directions as well as magnitude of stresses on different fringe order. [pic] Stimulated stress field pattern in white light for typical edge crack plate The photoelastic pattern appears as a colorful map of lines of equal color. Beginning at the lower level line of stress and progressing to areas of higher level, the colour sequence observed will be black, yellow, red, blue, yellow, red, green, yellow, red, green etc. The colour transmission from red to blue and from red to green is sharply marked. [pic] Polariscope: Polariscope: It is an instrument which consists of two polaroid plates mounted apart. The lower plate is generally fixed and is known as the polariser, while the upper plate can be rotated and is known as the analyser. Types: 1. Reflection Polariscope Particularly it is used to photoelastically stress-analyze opaque plastic parts. The part to be analyzed is coated with a photoelastic coating, service loads are applied to the part, and coating is illuminated by polarized light from the reflection polariscope. Molded-in or residual stresses cannot be observed with this technique. Fig. 13. 1 Typical reflection periscope on tripod stand 2. Transmission Polariscope. This type is useful for stress analysis if component is of transparent or glassy material. All transparent plastics, being birefringent, lend themselves to photoelastic stress analysis. The transparent part is placed between two polarizing mediums and viewed from the opposite side of the light source. In these experiments we will be only concerned with highlighting the dependence of stress distribution on geometric features, hence we can use the transparent materials and transmission type polariscope will be used. [pic] Fig. 13. 2 Transmission Polariscope Two arrangements of transmission polariscope are possible i. e. I. Plane polariscope Plane polariscope is used for direction measurement at a point of principal stresses for a specimen. The setup consists of two linear polarizers and a light source. The light source can either emit monochromatic light or white light depending upon the experiment. First the light is passed through the first polarizer which converts the light into plane polarized light. The apparatus is set up in such a way that this plane polarized light then passes through the stressed specimen. This light then follows, at each point of the specimen, the direction of principal stress at that point. The light is then made to pass through the analyzer and we finally get the fringe pattern. The fringe pattern in a plane polariscope setup consists of both the isochromatics and the isoclinics. The isoclinics change with the orientation of the polariscope while there is no change in the isochromatics. For this purpose, set the quarter wave plates on both the analyzer and the polarizer cells at position â€Å"D† (direction) to make the polariscope â€Å"plane† as shown below in fig13. 2 (b) Figure 13. 2 (a)Plane Polariscope Arrangement Figure 13. 2 (b)Pin postion at Plane Polariscope arrangement II. Circular polariscope When examining the model for determination of the stress distribution and magnitude, the polariscope must be transformed from a â€Å"PLANE† to a â€Å"CIRCULAR† operation. This is done by first making sure the clamp â€Å"A† is in the locked position and then withdrawing pins â€Å"B† on the ? wave plate from the hole â€Å"D† (direction) and rotating them until pins engage in hole â€Å"M† (magnitude). Now quarter wave plate is at 45 degrees to the polarizer-analyzer axis thus polariscope is in circular light operation Figure13. 3Circular Polariscope Arrangement(dark field) There are four different kinds of arrangements for the circular polariscope. Each arrangement produces either a dark field arrangement or a light field arrangement. In dark field arrangement, the fringes are shown by bright lines and the background is dark. The opposite holds true for the light field arrangement. Quarter Wave-Plates Arrangement |Polarizer’s Arrangement |Polariscope Field | |Crossed |Parallel |Light | |Crossed |Crossed |Dark | |Parallel |Parallel |Light | |Parallel |Crossed |Dark | Experiment No. 14 Calculation of direction and mag nitude of principal stresses using transmission polariscope. OBJECTIVES ) Application of photoelastic techniques to measure the direction of Principal Stresses at a point b) Calculation of magnitude of principal stresses by interpreting the fringe data. Apparatus Apparatus required to achieve the stated objectives are †¢ Transmission polariscope †¢ test specimen of different shapes †¢ Load measuring dial gauge †¢ Vernier Caliper and Meter Rod Construction of Transmission Polariscope: The basic polariscope consists of †¢ Rigid base frame ready to receive all of the modular accessory items. †¢ Two cells equipped with polarizing filters. †¢ Knob ‘H’ used to synchronously rotate the polarizer and analyzer (their common motion is indicated in degrees in the graduated dial). The quarter wave plate which can be used to convert plane polariscope into circular and vice versa. Fig 13. 2 show these components.. Specimen prepration: In this experi ment we are using photoelastic sheets (Polyurethane material) The photoelastic sheet was made into different specimens as stated below: a) specimen with holes drilled. b) specimen with cracks, which is manually cut c) specimens with notches Typical single edge crack specimen 2-D model is shown in fig. 14. Fig. 14. 1 PROCEDURE Measurement of Direction of Principal Stresses at a Point: To measure the direction of the principal stresses at a point in the specimen we follow the following steps: Place the specimen in the polariscope making sure that the specimen is aligned correctly within the clamps, hence avoiding any twisting of the specimen. †¢ Apply load (compressive or tensile) by turning the loading screw. †¢ Set the quarter wave plates on both the analyzer and the polarizer cells at position â€Å"D† to make the polariscope â€Å"plane† (Fig 13. 2 b). †¢ By means of knob ‘C’ rotate the analyzer until pointer â€Å"P† is positioned at 0 and 100 on the scale. †¢ Release the clamp ‘A’ if it was locked previously and by means of knob â€Å"H† rotate the whole assembly during this rotation some black and all the colored fringes will be observed to move. These black fringes which move are the isoclinics. †¢ Identify the point of measurement using a grease pencil or scriber. By means of knob â€Å"H† rotate the polarizer-analyzer assembly until a black isoclinic crosses over the marked point. At this point the axes of the polarizer and analyzer are parallel and perpendicular to the directions of the principal stresses and their directions can be seen from the scale by a pointer â€Å"V†. The rotation of the assembly may be clockwise or anti-clockwise; in order to accommodate this, sign is used with the value of this direction angle. The positive sign is used for clockwise rotation and negative is used for counter clockwise. Magnitude calculations ? The polariscope, and the digital camera are turned on ? Specimen undergoes tensile force/compressive load in Transmission Polariscope with one end fixed as in fig 13. 2 Fringes formed and photographed by digital camera ? A gradual tension was then added onto specimen and record the load reading by using dial-guage ? Print and interpret fringe pattern obtained in photographs according to the proce dure explained. Formulation for Stress Distribution: When examining the specimen for determination of the stress distribution and magnitude, the polariscope must be transformed from a â€Å"PLANE† to a â€Å"CIRCULAR† operation. This is done by first making sure the clamp â€Å"A† is in the locked position and then withdrawing pins â€Å"B† on the ? wave plate from the hole â€Å"D† (direction) and rotating them until pins engage in hole â€Å"M† (magnitude). Now quarter wave plate is at 45 degrees to the polarizer-analyzer axis thus polariscope is in circular light operation. Difference of principal stresses is given by (1 (2 = (N * C)/t Where N=fringe order at point of measurement C= stress constant of specimen material T = specimen thickness C is usually given by manufacturer. Thus the remaining number to be found is N which can be found according to color pattern as mention in the topic of interpretation of fringe pattern. CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS |S/No. |Applied load |Thickness of |Fringe Order |Direction of |Direction of |Magnitude of |Magnitude of | | |lbs/. 01 inch |specimen |‘N’ |principal stress |principal stress |principal stress |principal stress | | | |‘t’ | | |(threotcal value) | |(threotcal value) | |1 | | | | | | | | |2 | | | | | | | | |3 | | | | | | | | |4 | | | | | | | | |5 | | | | | | | | POINTS TO PONDER: 1. What will be the magnitude of shear stress at a plane of principle stress? 2. Describ e the functions of plane polriscope vs circular polriscope. 3. Describe the importance of calculation of stresses with reference to safety factor in engineering design. 4. Discuss the region of maximum stress for specimen used in experiments and explain with reasoning. 5. In case of residual stresses as a result of specimen machining which recovery method is preferable and why?